♥Core Studies| Physiological Psychology| Dement and Kleitman (1957) Dream and Sleep♥

Dement and Kleitman (1957)| the Relation of Eye Movements during Sleep to Dream Activity

Dement and Kleitman studied how the stage of sleep you are in affects whether you can or can't recall your dreams.

Background to the study 

Sleeping consists of a number of stages-which can be shown by the different patterns in alpha and beta waves during a test called electroencephalography; which is a method of measuring different electrical activity in the brain by recording from electrodes which will be placed on the scalp. Electroencephalography can also be referred to as an (EEG).

Overall there are four stages of sleep:

Stage One is the lightest stage of sleep (by lightest I mean the easiest to wake a person up from), you can characterise it by a lowered heart rate, relaxed muscle tension and a lover body temperature. Really this is when the body begins a state of relaxation. This stage is represented by slow alpha waves that have a frequency between 8-12 Hz per second.

Stage Two is still light but deeper than stage one, a person can still be woken up relatively easily and this is represented by larger EEG waves and spindles (which are bursts of high frequency waves between 12-16 Hz)

Stage Three is a deeper sleep, the waves are now delta waves which are large and slow waves between 1-3 Hz, in this stage people don't respond to external stimuli such as a light switching on or a car alarm going off and are quite difficult to get up.

Stage Four is the deepest sleep, people in this stage of sleep will respond to personal stimuli such as their baby crying, their metabolic activity is also low. This stage is characterised by delta waves of 1 Hz.

It takes around 30 mins to get down to stage four sleeps. When at stage four you spend 30 mins in this stage and then we fluctuate between stages 3 and 2 but instead of re-entering stage 1 again we go into a phase called Active Sleep. This stage is represented by much desynchronised pattern similar to that if we were awake. In this stage our metabolic activity increases along with heart rate but the body is still more or less paralysed and this stage makes waking up a person an impossible task. This phase of sleep is referred to as the deepest stage called REM sleep (which stands Rapid Eye Movement) this is because you can observe the movement of your eyes in this stage under closed eyelids. We tend to spend 10-15 mins in REM sleep and then go back to stage 4, 3, 2 etc. This cycle takes about 70-90 mins to happen and is repeated 5-6 times a night.

A restoration theory suggests that non REM sleep restores bodily processes that have deteriorated during the day. Whereas REM sleep stimulates protein synthesis which replenishes brain processes. Sleep can be described as a survival function by keeping animals safe from predators, and hibernation can be seen as an extension of this process.

You might wonder why is it that we dream, well there are many theories that relate to just that question. Reorganisation of mental structures theory suggests that REM sleep is involved in the organisation of schemas which is the cognitive structures that support cognitive processes. This is supported by the finding that complex cognitive tasks lead to an increase in the time spent in REM sleep and also by the fact that babies spend so much time in REM sleep. IN other words it can be said that REM sleep is seen as a support of cognitive development. The Activation Synthesis Model proposes that dreams are the 'active interpretation of the signals produced by the cortex during REM sleep. Crick and Mitchinson (1983) suggested that this is a way of us being able to sort out all of the information that we absorbed that day so dreaming is something which allows our brain to decide what information we want to keep or get rid of. And finally Freud (1900) saw dreams as the 'royal road to the unconscious' and psychoanalytic therapists still use dream interpretation as a way  of interpreting individual patients hidden desires and thoughts.

Aim 

Aim of the study was to investigate the following three hypotheses:

Hyp 1- There will be a significant association between REM sleep and dreaming - which basically asks the question whether we dream in REM sleep.

Hyp 2- There will be a significant positive correlation between the estimate of the duration of dream and the length of eye movement- so this is asking whether our eye movement has anything with dreaming,

Hyp 3- There will be a significant association between the pattern of eye movement and the context of the dream- which is basically proposing that the direction in which we move our eyes associates the directions were looking in our dreams.

Participants 

The participants consisted of 9 people. The sample was studied in two groups, a group of five participants who were studied in depth and a group of four participants who were used as a control group (meaning that they were used for a comparison)

The sample was made up of 7 men and 2 women, although not confirmed it is suggested that there was one woman in each group.

Procedure

Sleep sessions took place in a 'sleep lab' that was set up for the experiment- which meant that participants were in a set up environment. Participants could eat normally but were told to not drink caffeine or alcohol on the day of the study- this took place so that any extraneous variables which could disturb the natural sleeping pattern of the participants. EEG electrodes were then placed near the eyes to measure the electric to measure electric activity and therefore REM (Rapid Eye Movement). From this D&K could know when a participant was in REM and what type of REM they were in. Electrodes were also placed around the skull so D&K could measure the brain activity of the participants.  The participants were then woken at various times in the night using a doorbell that was situated by their bed and were asked to record their dreams (if they remembered anything from them) on a voice recorder. Sometimes participants were woken during REM sleep and sometimes they weren't woken during REM sleep. If no dream were recalled it got recorded as a ''no dream''. Five out of nine participants were studied over a period of 61 nights with 351 awakenings in total and an average of 5.7 awakenings per night.

Testing Hyp 1:

Participants were woken up during the night with a loud doorbell sound, and then the participants had to speak into the voice recorder. They were then instructed to first state whether or not they had been dreaming and then, if they could remember the dream they would recall their dream. The participants were only reported as having dreamed if they could coherently recall their dream (give loads of detail about the dream). Participants were woken up on a schedule so one participant would be woken up three times in REM and then three times in N-REM so on, Two were woken up at random, One was told that he would only get woken up in REM but got woken up randomly. Another was woken up at the experimenter’s whim. To eliminate experimenter effects, the experimenter did not communicate with the participants during the night, and also to eliminate bias the participants were not told whether their eyes moved or not.

Testing Hyp 2:
The participants were also woken at either 5 or 15 mins into REM sleep and were asked to predict whether they had dreamt for 5 or 15 mins.

Testing Hyp 3:

The participants were woken up as soon as one of the four patterns of eye movement had lasted for at least one minute. On waking the participants were asked to describe in detail the content of their dream. The four patterns that prompted an awakening were: mainly vertical eye movements, mainly horizontal eye movements, both vertical and horizontal eye movements, very little or no eye movement.

Findings

All participants showed periods of REM every night during sleep. The REM EEG was characterised by a low volt. And relatively fast pattern which were characteristics of a deeper sleep. (Refer to your graph and background to the study to look at patterns of REM). REM never occurred at the beginning of the sleep cycle. REM periods which were not terminated by an awakening varied between 3 and 50 mins with a mean of about 20, and tended to increase in length as the night progressed. REM periods occurred at regular intervals during the night, though each participant has their own pattern: mean period of REM phase for the whole group was 92 mins, with individual norms varying to between 70-104 mins.

Hyp 1: in REM sleep 152 dreams were recalled in comparison to 39 dreams that weren't recalled. In N-REM sleep 11 dreams were recorded in comparison to the 149 dreams that weren't recorded. So this shows that that REM sleep is predominantly- but not exclusively- associated with dreaming. When participants were woken up at 11 mins into REM so the transition to N-REM they could remember distorted bits of information from their dreams.

Hyp 2: results to the estimates of the length of dreams were five mins into REM 45 participants correctly guessed the length of their dreams where as 6 didn't. When fifteen mins into REM 47 participants correctly guessed the length of their dream where as 13 didn't. Which suggests that all participants could correctly choose the correct dream duration fairly accurately? 

Hyp 3: There did appear to be some relationship between the dream content and the type of eye movements. After a series of vertical eye movements dreams such as: standing at the bottom of a cliff operating a hoist, and looking up at the climbers and down at the machinery, climbing up a series of ladders looking up and down, throwing basketballs at a net, first shooting and looking up at the net, and then looking down to pick another ball off the floor. Horizontal eye movements recorded such dreams such as watching two people throw tomatoes at each other. When a mixture of eye movements were recorded dreams involved looking at people or objects close to them. Little or no eye movements recorded dreams when a person was watching something from a distance or just staring fixedly at some object. In order to confirm the meaningfulness of the results of the relationship 20 naive and 5 of the experimental participants were asked to observe distant and close-up activity while awake. These measurements were in all cases comparable to those occurring during dreaming.

Evaluation 

The strength of this method is that it is high in reliability as such studies as this can be repeated by other researchers, And also it took place in a highly controlled environment which meant that any extraneous and confounding variables are ruled out. However it laced in ecological validity as none of the participants had a natural sleep because of being placed in unnatural settings and wouldn't sleep with electrodes placed on their head, but it could be looked over if the study might actually happen if the participants were in their own bed it might alter the sleeping pattern, 

The sample was un-repersentable with a ratio of 7:2 for males to females which is a significant gender imbalance. But this has been overcome by the amount of overall awakenings which summed up to 375 awakenings. As the physiology of the brain is similar in all people we don't need a large sample which is why the sample size is ideal. Both Qualitative and Quantitative data was used; quantitative data was collected by the means of the EEG \and Qualitative data was collected via the description of the dreams. The study was useful as it allowed us to see if there was any correlation between sleep and our eye movement. However it’s not a general sable study as it did take place in controlled conditions therefore its usefulness can be argued.

It is a reductionist study as it gives a biological explanation of the narrow focus, which is that dreaming is simply a product of REM sleep.

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Hope this was helpful. If you have any question please ask and as the exams aren’t far away id encourage past papers for region purposes which for this course can be found on the OCR Website: Core Studies Past Papers Code G542 and Psychological Investigations code is G541

♥Psychological Investigations| Experiments| Key Terms♥

Hi all,

In the psychological investigation topic of Experiments there are a few Key Terms that are important for your understanding of the topic; so i will discuss them here and give you examples of what you could write for questions on these questions.

Types of Experiments

Lab Experiments- these usually take place in a highly controlled environment such as a Laboratory clearly stated by the name. Such experiments provide the researcher with high levels of control over variables however such studies do not have high ecological validity. Usually such questions are asked about the strengths and weaknesses of lab experiments ( there is a blog post on this here so you would state a weakness and a strengths and give examples for each.)

Field Experiments - These take place in the natural environment of participants however the experimenter still has some control over variables. such experiments allow to see participants natural behaviour to a certain extent however these don't give the experimenter the levels of control that are available with the lab experiments . Once again if a question is asked on Field experiments i have written a blog post here explaining all the pro's and cons of it.

Quasi Experiments are like a 'mini-experiment' of the actual study to see if the hypothesis and everything is tested and if the experimental design, participant group is working. If you think about a TV series such as Vampire Diaries or American Horror story the first episode of any series is called pilot and this is because this is seeing whether people will be interested in continuing to watch this tv programme so referring back to psychology our quasi ( it is sometimes referred to as pilot ) study is like our Pilot episode of a series of experiments.

Types of Variables

Independent Variable- This is something that the researcher manipulates

Dependent Variable is something that the researcher measures

Confounding Variables are variables which could possibly affect the dependent variables however the experimenter has some control over those  a bit like a lab where there's windows and the weather outside is rain and wind then the participants could be distracted by the events wearing outside however the researcher could if there was blinds in the experimenting room, pull them down.

Extraneous Variables are variables which could possibly affect the DV however the researcher has no control over what happens. For example if researchers where doing a study about participants levels of anxiety created by a historical events such as WW2 through viewing some images of things such as images of concentration camps, some participants may have had relatives that may have been involved in the war directly which could effect the results.

How to make sure that Your Experiment is reliable?

This is often an exam question which looks a bit like ; How can the experimenter make sure research is reliable? This is possible through replication of your study. The way your study can be replicated is if you carry it out in different areas of the city/ country and check whether there is a pattern in the trends. And also through publishing your study and allowing other psychologist to see whether your experiment works. This is made possible by writing a good procedure which is something i will be writing a blog on next.

What is Ecological Validity?

This is a term used by psychologist to explain to what extend the study/experiment/research is true to life. These can be shown by Natural Experiments which are most true to life in comparison to ones such as lab experiments.

Experimental Design

summaries of the three types of  experiments can be found here and im going to talk you through some limitations here. In Repeated measures design the participants may be subjected to Order effects this si because the same participants may go through the same condition more than once the experiments results may be influenced by actions in previous events of the condition. In Independent  Measures design the results may be created by individual differences, for example if you're doing a a study on  memory every one has a different memory capacity to others so therefore some people may be able to remember more so than others. There is also another experimental design called Counter Balancing and this is where you control effects of extraneous variables by making sure you keep all of the variables equal,. Demand Characteristics can occur in any experiment , study observation and this is where the participants think they have identified what the objective of the study is and therefore tried to behave according to what they think may have affected the study.

♥Core Studies| Social Psychology| Milgram (1963) Obedience

Milgram

-          Milgram initiated his study to test his ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis in order to explain that the Germans have a basic character which makes them more obedient in comparison to any other nationality and would help to explain tyranny (events such as the holocaust.)

The aim of the experiment was to investigate what level of obedience would be shown by participants were told by an authority figure to administer electric shock to another person.

IV- Prods given to participants

DV- Degree of obedience measured through the strength and duration of the shock

Although This Study is often described as an ‘experiment’ there is no control condition so his results can’t be compared to another group. So a better way to describe it would be that he used a controlled observation.

Participants and Method

40 males aged 20-50 years old from New Haven. The participants were self selected and consented to take part in the study of ‘memory and learning’ at Yale University in response to the advertisement that was published in a local paper and the use of direct mail, these males would be paid $4.50 just for attending to the study. This was Milgram’s way of making sure obedience wasn’t going to be affected by the money.

Milgram created a fake- shock generator which consisted of 30 switches in clear 15 volt increments which ranged from 15V-400V. The generator also had buzzers, flashing lights and moving dials and also the generator could give a 45 volt shock which would increase the authenticity of the study as it would appear genuine to the participants taking it especially with the fact that the study was taking place in a smart psychology lab at Yale University.

Experimenter was played by a 31 year old biology teacher who wore a technicians coat and appeared stern and emotionless; he was a confederate (an actor who was in on the study). The learner was played by Mr. Wallace who was mild mannered and likable he was also a confederate. The slips of paper which decided whether the participants were teacher or learner were rigged and both of the slips said teacher on it. The teacher was always one of the chosen participants. Teacher and learner were both taken to the adjacent room and the learner, in the view of the teacher was strapped to the electric chair, this was to prevent excessive movement. An electrode was attached to the learner with electrode paste which was said to avoid blisters and burns. Then in front of the teacher the learner was told that although the shocks might be painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage. To further enhance the authenticity a sample shock of 45V was given to the teacher.

The participants were told to read out a series of word pairs which the learner had to memorise. From the word pairs the participants would read out one of the word from the pairs and four other words of which one was the second word of the pair. If the answer was correct the participants moved on to the next word pair, if the answer was wrong the teacher had to tell the participants the correct answer and the level of punishments (volts). The learners predetermined responses were recorded previously and based on a schedule of 3 wrong answers to one correct. No vocal response was heard after the level of 300 volts and at 315 volts his answers did not appear on the panel. If the participants asked for advice like for example should I continue administering the shocks prods would be given.

Prods

1)      Please continue or please go on

2)      The experiments require that you continue

3)      It is absolutely essential that you continue

4)      You have no choice for you must go on

The prods were given in chronological order so prod 1 would be given and if the teacher asked if they should continue again then prod 2 would be given so on and only if participants asked. However in the participants asked if there was any permanent injury given to the learner then special prods were given.

1)      Although the shocks may be painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage, so please go on

2)      Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has leaned all the word pairs correctly so please go on

Followed by prods 2, 3 and 4 if necessary.

 The experiment ended either when 450 volts were reached or the participants walked out.

Analysis

-          A participant who broke off  at any point prior to the highest shock level was called a defiant participant  those who continued up to 450 volts was called an obedient participant,

-          The sessions were filmed and notes were taken of the latency of the shock and durations of the shocks were timed.

-          The participants were debriefed using open ended questions to check that no harm was caused using psychometric test via Personality tests.

-          Participants were also reunited with the learner and explained to them that their behaviour was normal.

Findings

40 participants obeyed up to 300 volts, Overall 65% of participants gave shocks of up to 450 volts 35% stopped sometime before 450 volts.

Obedient participants heaved signs of relief or shook their heads in apparent regret.

Many participants heaved signs of nervousness or tension: sweating, trembling, lip biting, groaning, digging fingernails into flesh, nervous laughing fits and uncontrollable seizures were recorded that the experiment had to be halted.

On a separate rating scale participants were asked how painful to the learner were the last few shocks 1 (not painful at all) to 14(extremely painful) the mean was 13.42 which believed that participants though the test was genuine even though it was fake and study actually studied obedience rather than memory and learning (don’t get the two mixed up)

Conclusions
Milgram’s results shocked the researcher as they were not expecting such high levels of obedience (the expectation was only 2% of participants to go up to 450 volts)

Milgram suggested that because the experiment took place at a prestigious Yale University that that lent the study it credibility and respect. Participants thought that the experiment was for a worthy purpose of gaining advanced knowledge to understanding of learning processes and also they believed that the victim also volunteered to be in the study so it was up to them to continue even if the procedure became unpleasant. Also as far as the participants were concerned the roles of teacher and learner had been allocated fairly.

Evaluation

Positive

Negative

Milgram would have not found results that were so true to life if he had not used deception as this allowed people to behave in naturalistic ways. The males that replied could somehow be different from the rest of population which would allow the results to be valid to a certain extent. Psychiatrists examine participants one year after committing the study and found no long term damage. Milgram’s study was cross-culturally replicated and Australia and Italy gained similar results The main strength of Milgram’s study was the control he had over the study. 84% of the participants that were used in a follow up experiment a year later said that they were happy to be a part of the study and also The American Association For The Advancement Of Science awarded Milgram for outstanding contribution of science in 1995.

Milgram’s sample was unrepresentative and gender bias as only American males (which could suggest that Milgram was deliberately  ethno-centric- basing his study on one culture: American Males) were used results could have been different if different cultures or females were used so the study does not reflect general population. Psychological Association of USA investigated Milgram’s research and found it to be ethically unacceptable, this can be shown by the prods that were given which did not allow the participants to withdraw even if that option was made available. Baumrind (1964) argued that none of the participants were screened to see if the study would affect them in a negative way which can be proven by the 1.3% of participants who said they were unhappy to be in the follow up study one year later. Orne (1963) stated that the study clearly lacked ecological validity if procedure was changed to an actual pupil- teacher environment such as a classroom maybe results would be different.

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Hi to you all Psychology friends and people interested in psychology. Everything mentioned in this post if form the AS Psychology OCR Specification for any more information about this course please go to the OCR Website. I hoped that you have enjoyed reading and revising . If you have further questions please don't hesitate to leave comments down below get intouch with me on twitter and facebook.

 Thanks 

♥ Nat

♥Psychological Investigations- Observations♥

Observations

Overall in psychology observations are used quite a lot. There is so many different varieties and procedures as to how you would carry out observations.

Participant Observations

♥ Participant observation can be both Overt and Covert, these are observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity which could affect the objectivity. 

♥ Overt Participant Observation is where participants are aware that you are observing them. This is a positive as it allows the researcher to gain the consent of the participants  and allows the researcher to really understand group traits and cause and effect relationships which produces rich data. However, this can create objectivity which basically mean its very much one sided as researcher is a part of the group they can't just tell us what they see from a perspective that everyone would see.

♥Covert Participant Observation is when the participants aren't aware that you're observing them. This increases reliability and validity as behaviours are more naturalistic. However social desirability may still occur and also participants did not give you their consent to be observed which creates an ethical issue ,

♥Non-Participant Observations are observations made by someone who is not participating in the activity observed. These are a positive as they allow  the observer to be very objective so all observers may get the same results which increases the observer Inter Rater Reliability (this is a way of describing how well independent observers score on the findings and  the extent to which the findings correlate - so in simpler terms how well the researchers have gathered their results and if at all there's any similarities in their findings.) Also you can record these observations which later allow you to pick out anything that you may have missed. Although NPO can be great they cant really establish a cause and effect relationship and you can also miss informations along the way.

Structured and Unstructured Observations

♥ Structured observations are ones where the researchers create a type of coding scheme to record the participants data which can collect quantitative data which is easy to analyse. Coding Schemes are ways of categorising behaviour so that you can code what you observe in order of how often a type of behaviour appears. This  type of information is a easy to carry out however as its categorised it is a restricted view and is not very in-depth so you cant find cause and effect relationships between behaviours.

♥ Unstructured Observations are ones where the researcher records all the behaviour that is observed. This type of observation can be difficult to carry out without the use of recording equipment as it is easy to miss behaviours. This type of data is difficult to analyse however it does provide rich quantitative data.

Sampling Observational Data.

♥Sometimes researchers may use a sampling technique to collect their data as it may be difficult to record everything; these techniques are Event and Time Sampling.

♥Event Sampling is where the observer records any significant behaviour that happens during the observation period, such as ticking a box every time you would see people talk in class when the teachers talking. Although behaviours should not be missed, if there is to many observations happening at once not all behaviours may be recorded.

♥ Time Sampling is where the researchers pick a set time frame in which they would record behaviours seen. This method can be problematic as researchers cant see all the behaviours happening at anyone time, which can be unrepresentative of the group being observed.

As always thank you for reading if there's anything that you would like to know in particular please let me know and do not hesitate to get in touch information is all down below.

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Hi to you my Psychology Friends or people interested in psychology. Everything mentioned in this post is from the AS Psychology OCR Specification. For any more information about this course please go on to the OCR website and I Hope you enjoyed reading and revising. If you have further questions please do not hesitate to leave a comment down below or get in touch with me on twitter: @MissSweetlyNat or on Facebook: http://facebook.com/MissSweetlyNat or just type in Miss Sweetly Nat in the search bar.

Thanks

Nat♥

♥Psychological Investigations- Self Reports♥

Self- Reports.

What are they and how do we carry them out?

Self-reports are basically pieces of information collected by the researcher through the use of Questionnaires and Interviews. They can be used alone or along side studies that to find out specific information in relation to your topic of subject, 

Questionnaires can vary in the questions you ask, they can be open or closed and can also use things such as a rating scale.

Open Questions:

♥ these questions allow the participant taking the questionnaire to expand and explain the answer they gave to a question.

♥ An example of an open question would be. What is your opinion on Psychological Studies being carried out on humans?

♥A strength of an open question is that the answers are not fixed-choice answers; respondents can write what ever they want.

♥A weakness of Open Questions is that the data is harder to analyse as the data produced is Qualitative rather than Quantitative.

Closed Questions and Rating Scales

♥ these questions are often very fixed and participants usually either tick boxes or use a rating scale.

♥An Example of a Closed Question would be: Would you Consider doing a Psychology Study? Yes / No/ I Don't Know. Put a ring around one of the choices above.

♥ A strength of  closed questions is that the data collected is easy to analyse as the data collected is Quantitative,

♥ A weakness of closed questions is that respondents cant abbreviate on their answer  and also the answer can sometimes be  forced,

♥ An example of a Rating Scale. is a Likert Scale. 

♥ Work Is Successful: strongly agree [] agree [] not sure[] disagree[]  strongly disagree[]

♥ A strength of likert scales is that it allows the researcher  has an idea about how strongly the participant feels about something and therefore gives more detail than a simple yes or no.

♥ a weakness of likert scales is that  the respondents tend to respond towards the middle  to make them look less extreme.

Interviews 

♥ can also use open or closed question and can also be structured or unstructured.

♥structured interviews have pre-set questions that the interviewer asks. This allows the interview to run smoothly and the researcher gets the answers on the topics he or she wants to know the answers to.

♥unstructured/semi-structured interviews. semi structured interviews still use pre-set questions however like unstructured interviews they are more like a formal conversation about the topics you want to find the answers to as well as a more relaxed feel for the interviewee.

So, I'm just going to run through strengthens and weaknesses of questionnaires and interviews.

interviews

♥ provide large amounts of qualitative data - this enables the researcher to participants experiences, Interviews also are more likely to gain an insight of  the participants world  and also interviewers can use body language to confirm verbal responses.

♥however interviews can be hard to carry out and may be influenced by interviewer bias. Also there is difficulty in the way that the data is hard to analyse and also the interviews are very lengthy procedures and participants may still answer untruthfully.

Questionnaires 

♥record participants experiences and response rates can be high if the questionnaires are given back on the spot. questionnaires can also hold a large sample of the target population and contain topics that are difficult to talk about.

♥however often  can be influenced to bias. Questionnaires are also difficult to design well and also response rate can be low if its a postal questionnaire . sometimes the data gathered can be complex and difficult to to interpret and participants may also answer untruthfully,

Finally in any research method you will be looking at weather your research is valid and reliable,

reliability refers to how consistent something is; so for example making sure that all questions on the questionnaire and structured interview are the same for all participants. Validity refers to how accurate something is. so the main problem with validity when carrying out questionnaires is that we cant be certain on weather our participants are telling the truth which makes the results invalid.

P.S , I forgot to mention that Qualitative data is data that is rich in detail and is usually worded rather than numerical data. Quantitative data is data that can be produced into graphs so it is often data that is easily analysed and in the example of self reports usually produced by questionnaires, A good way of remembering these two things is that Qualitative data has Quality and Quantitative data has Quantity,

                                             ♥               ♥              ♥            ♥

Hi to you my Psychology Friends or people interested in psychology. Everything mentioned in this post is from the AS Psychology OCR Specification. For any more information about this course please go on to the OCR website and I Hope you enjoyed reading and revising. If you have further questions please do not hesitate to leave a comment down below or get in touch with me on twiter: @MissSweetlyNat or on Facebook: http://facebook.com/MissSweetlyNat or just type in Miss Sweetly Nat in the search bar.

Thanks

Nat♥